INTRODUCTION
The Holy Bible is the first book that declared Adam as the
first person to name species. However since this web site is dealing with
recorded scientific information we must forego the theological path and instead
focus on Man's ichthyologic method record. The sciences essentially began in Europe and later works in the New
World were to advance European sciences. For practical purposes,
science is still relatively young in the Americas. Many overlooked works can
be found in manuscripts by Christopher Columbus who wrote about the fauna he
saw in the New World or the Egyptians who
catalogued their fishes on pyramid walls. Even Leif Ericsson's explorations
which predated Columbus
had mention of fishes that later scientist's would "discover." But
even with this knowledge of history, we mustn't overlook the aborigines who
themselves named species. Some of which bear the native name in the species
binomen.
The beginning of taxonomy can be probably traced to John
Ray (1628-1705). Ray introduced the complex grouping system and
greatly improved the language description. Ray used the genus and species
method of naming organisms. Prior to that the Greeks and Romans, notably Aristotle
(384-322 B.C.) is credited with starting taxonomy having an accurate knowledge
of fish anatomy and able to correctly distinguish aquatic mammals or cetaceans.
But it was the work of the next author that drew the most praise and credit.
Karl Linnaeus (1707-1778) brought
sharp focus to the method used today. Linnaeus (see picture at left) is
considered by all as the "father" of taxonomy. It was his work that
was massive in its undertaking, surpassing all before him including Ray.
Linnaeus created a system of keys for naming species that were simple to use.
This enabled many to use the method to identify organism's themselves. Linnaeus
first classification of nature (minerals, plants and animals) appeared in 1735
and was immediately accepted by his peers. He grew in stature and reputation
throughout the world. Later, he would establish a school (University of Upsala)
in Sweden,
which became the center of taxonomony which students from all over the world
came. He called his work Systema Naturae. This work was in its 13th
edition when Linnaeus died in 1778, this work however was carried over through
more editions by his students for the next 50 years. Modifications took place
over time following the method first established by Ray. By the 10th edition
the list of names and species became shorter and shorter to its abbreviated
form. Linnaeus suggested that it was sufficient it if merely identified the
species among those of the genus. This simple answer established the binominal
system of nomenclature.
Linnaeus further gave names to groups larger than the
genus, establishing the class (similar to what Aristotle had established). The
first was called CLASSES and each was divided into ORDERS,
which then were broken down further to genera and species. By 1800 other
workers introduced FAMILY as a category between ORDER
and the genus. Finally, the classes were grouped into higher categories called PHYLA.
The 10th edition of Systema Naturae is the first
publication to adhere strictly to binominal nomenclature, one of the
International Rules states that no name published prior to this is valid.
Hence, the 4,236 descriptions in this book include the earliest species are
considered and accepted as official. The International Rules of Zoological
Nomenclature require that whenever a new species is discovered and described
the name of the designated species must be called a Holotype on which
the species is based. Other species used in describing the new species become paratypes,
and the data collected from them is included in the description. It is
customary for ichthyologists to give the designated type to (country of origin)
museums for permanent preservation. This then can be reviewed and used for
research by professional ichthyologists and students who are qualified.
But problems would begin to surface that would lead to more
changes and a new burst of interest in this work. The 19th century saw rise of
a period called "romanticism" and a philosopher by the name of Johann
Wolfgang von Goethe paved the way in city-state of Weimar in Germany. He was a poet and a
biologist among other things. His belief in harmony and the inherent goodness
of nature started a new trend which was called "nature-philosophy" as
a method understanding life. This however did not last long as the generation
began to mature more. Georges Cuvier was a biologist in France
(survived not only the French Revolution but Napoleon too) and extended
single-handedly a new method of classification called comparative
anatomy. By reconstructing bones of extinct animals (fossils) he began
the laborious task of naming them. This resurgence however did not last long
even though Cuvier work uncovered many things that were once considered
distinct. The concept of evolution was not accepted nor popular at the time and
Cuvier et al., were vehemently opposed to it. The thought of those days was
that all creatures were created just as they were. The original method of
Linnaeus had not been realized yet and taxonomy declined after 1832.
Charles Darwin entered
the arena in 1858 and by that time taxonomy was facing its worst crises, lack
of interest by scientists. When Darwin
presented his ideas and arguments about evolution eyes perked up and now a
newer method was being devised. In Cuvier's time evolution would have been
unthinkable and unscientific. Even by today's standards Darwinism as it was
known then postulated that man descended from a common ancestor, the ape. This
was met with much controversy even court action to prevent schools to teach was
is now called "Evolution." Darwin was able to postulate the
"why" of a species where before it could never be asked. This allowed
a species to be better defined as an evolutionary unit, as
well as a taxonomic category.
Ichthyology
Ichthyology which is the focus of this OPEFE website was
confronted with many inadequate descriptions and figures of fishes printed
during the over 200 years since records were first kept. The first original
observations may be attributed to Pierre Belon (1517-1575) in De
aquatilibus libri duo; Hyppolyto Salviana (1514-1572) in Aquatilium
animalium histoae...; and Gulielmus Rondelet (1507-1566)
in libri de piscibus marinis, whose works are almost entirely limited
to Mediterrean and European fishes.The next century, Guilielmus Piso
(1611-1678) and George Marcgrav (1610-1644) accompanied Prince
Moritz of Nassau (1604-1679) to Brazil in 1637-1644 approximately 100
species of fish. It was about this time John Ray (see above)
and Francis Willoughby (1635-1672) and ichthyology flourished.
A Swede by the name of Peter Artedi (1705-1735)
surfaced from the University of Uppsala, Sweden. His earliest investigation
were more important than others before him. There are those who consider
him the father of ichthyology. In 1728 Karl (Latinized as
Carolus) Linnaeus visited this university.
Linneaus inquired as to who was engaged in the study of natural history and he
was then referred to Artedi. That is how they met and became friends. Each
helping the other not only in personal money needs but even making an agreement
that the survivor would publish the works of the one deceased. Artedi drowned
in 1735 in Holland.
Linnaeus true to his word published Artedi Ichthyologia in 1738.
Artedi method was that he believed that a genus represented a group of species
which agreed with each other in general but which differed in minor characters.
Having established the generic concept, Artedi proceeded to group the genera
into "maniples." This is the same family concept used today. The maniples
were arranged into natural orders, and these into a class, representing the
whole group of fishes. In all Artedi recognized 47 genera and 230 species. The
only weakness in this rating was below the genus. He retained the polynomial
scheme of nomenclature. There is no doubt Artedi greatly influenced Linnaeus.
Many more ichthyologic works would follow Artedi and
Linnaeus. Some of those names include, Otto Fabricus
(1744-1822), Petrus Forskål (1736-1763), Petrus Pallas
(1741-1811), Antione Risso (1777-1845), Thomas Pennant
(1726-1798), Wlhelm G. Tilesius (1769-1857), Georg
Wilhelm Steller (1709-1746). Constantine Samuel Rafinesque (1783-1840),
had the dubious distinction of having described and published non-existent
animals. This as a result of a friend suggesting the famed bird painter Audobon
meet Rafinesque since both shared a passion for natural history. This was
during the summer and Rafinesque having impressed Audobon with his knowledge of
natural history was invited to spend the night in Audobon's cabin. During the
night, Audobon awoke to a commotion in the naturalist room. To his astonishment
he saw his guest, running naked, holding the handle of Audobon's favorite Cremona (a violin), the
body of which was battered to pieces in attempting to kill bats for
examination. Audobon as earlier stated was a noted artist and famous for
painting birds. He used this skill to create non-existent animals by placing
the head of one and then painting onto the body of another. Perhaps revenge in
his heart Audobon gave these paintings to Rafinesque and the naturalist
immediately set out in describing these new species. Ten of these were actually
published in Ichthyologia Ohiensis.
Marc Elieser Bloch (1723-1799), Bernhard G.E. Lacepède (1756-1825), Georges
L. C. F.D. Cuvier (1769-1832) and Achille Valenciennes
(1794-1865). The first ichthyologist to publish an actual description can be
traced to an American named LeSueur (1821). The species
described was Mollinesia latipinna, commonly called the sail-fin
Mollie. In those days there was a lot of carelessness in describing and naming
new species. Many of the plates used as illustrations contained many errors in
spelling, etc. Because the egregious mistake in spelling of Mollinesia was
in dispute (the plate illustration had the name misspelled as Molinesia)
it took three ichthyologist in the future to investigate and correct the
nomenclature error.
The last attempt to write a series of volumes on the fishes
of the world was by Albert C.L.G. Günther (1830-1914). This work
was entitled Catalogue of the Fishes of the British Museum.
It was published in eight volumes from 1859-1870. To many species were being
discovered and the task became more complicated. More work than one person
could accomplish. The local fauna was by and large greater than what was once
thought and could not be worked into the treatise on fishes of the world. The
next serious attempt was made by Johann Baptis von Spix (1781-1826) and Louis
Aggassiz (1807-1873). This work pertained to Brazilian local fauna and
related fishes. Johann Müller (1801-1858) and Friedrich G. J. Henle
(1807-1885) produced the first authoritative work on sharks (Systematische
Beschriebungen der Plagiostomen) in 1841. Peter Bleeker (1819-1878)
published 500 separate contributions, chiefly on the fishes of the tropical
Indo-Pacific. His book which was not only fully illustrated, it was one of the
best 9 volumes from previous works of other authors. The book name is Atlas Ichthyologique des
Indes Orientales Néerlandaises, 1862-1877. The
literature from that work is the most accurate and comparable to many
literature found today.
Cuba also had a notable ichthyologist by the name of Felipe Poey
y Aloy (1799-1891). He labored for over a 50 years on the local fish
and fauna. Japan
also produced other ichthyologic works by Coenraad Jacob Temminck (1770-1858)
and Herman Schlegel (1804-1844). Their work catalogued the
fauna and fishes of the Japanese island. There were other ichthyologists from
other lands (way to many to list here), but some other notable ones include; Franz
Steindachner (1834-1919), George Boulenger
(1858-1937), Robert Collett (1842-1913), Carlos Berg
(1843-1902), Francis Day (1829-1889), and Leon Louis
Vaillant (1834-1915).
American Ichthyology is dated from the feeble beginnings of Rafinesque and from Samuel
Latham Mitchill (1764-1831). His work pertained to the treatise on the
fishes of New York.
Shortly after that Charles Alexander LeSueur (1778-1846)
reported on the Great Lakes and Ohio basin. He was an
artist and naturalist. Other American ichthyologist surfaced during that
period; Jared Potter Kirtland (1793-1877) on Ohio fishes; James
Ellsworth DeKay (1792-1851) on the New York fauna; John
Richardson (1787-1865), published Fauna boreali-Americana in
1836. Massachusetts
also produced an ichthyologist named David Humphreys Storer (1804-1891)
who focused his work on the fishes from that state. South Carolina fishes were examined and
written about by John Edwards Holbrook (1796-1871).
In 1846, The Smithsonian Institution was created
in the city of Washington,
D. C. This institution was under the direction of the United States
government. This gave a permanent residence to the United States National
Museum where specimens
could stored and later reviewed by people interested in North American fauna
and the fauna found in the world. The U.S. National Museum, Division of Fishes
is so large that very little space is available for its multitude of specimen
jars exceeding 300,000. This collection belongs to the people of the United States
and is available only those students qualified in ichthyologic studies. This
collection is very similar to a book library where the student can research
past observations and record new ones. The institution is assisted by the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Commission who has a history of systematic ichthyologic
leadership in investigations over a century old. Noteworthy contributions can
be traced to G. Brown Goode (1851-1896) and his Oceanic
Ichthyology; David Starr Jordan (1851-1931) in collaboration
with Charles Henry Gilbert (1859-1928) and Barton
Warren Evermann (1853-1932) were responsible for publishing over 100
citations on American fishes. Henry W. Fowler (1878-?), Academy of National Sciences in Philadelphia, did many citations on
Philippine collections using his on ship called Albatross. Furthermore,
Fowler in 1945 and Bailey & Miller in 1950 examined the work by LeSeur
amended the name to Mollienesia which closely followed the name of the
man it was supposed to honor, LeSueur. This was the first time an examination
of ichthyologic review was ever done in order to correct an egregious error in
a citation. A volume of fishes in Peru was provided by Samuel
Frederick Hildebrand (1883-1949) and that on freshwater fishes of Thailand (then Siam) by Hugh
McCormick Smith (1865-1941).
Louis Agassiz (1807-1873)
in 1850 wrote a monograph on the fishes of Lake Superior
and trained one of his students, Charles Frederic Girard (1822-1895),
in ichthyology. Many fish collections and preservations were completed during
the United States Pacific Railway surveys which were brought back to Washington. Here Spencer
Fullerton Baird (1823-1887) published the survey fauna (mostly from
the Western United States) with the assistance
of Girard. Baird was one of the secretaries to the Smithsonian Institution
during this time. Also engaged in these earlier explorations were James
Wood Milner (1841-1879), Marshall McDonald
(1835-1895), William O. Ayers (1817-1891), William
Neale Lockington (184?-1902), and George Suckley
(1830-1869) among others.
Certain American educational institutions (latter half of
nineteenth century and early twentieth century) later arose into centers of
leadership in the study of fishes and exploration. Harvard University
had Samuel Garman (1843-1927). Garmon was a student of Agassiz and he made valuable contributions on the sharks
and the deep-sea fishes collected by Albatross. Indiana University
became another important research center for fishes under the leadership of
David Starr Jordan
during the 1880's. He would be then followed by the man whom many would call
"the father of characid studies," Carl Eigenmann.
Carl H. Eigenmann
(1863-1927) took over and became famous for his valuable contributions on South
American fishes. Jordan
had trained Eigenmann and inspired his very active ichthyologic career.
Eigenmann collaborated in many of Jordan's works and Jordan would
later appoint Eigenmann as professor of zoology at Indiana University.
Upon Eigenmann's death his successor (Fernandus Payne) praised Eigenmann's
researches by stating in his opinion "place him (Eigenmann) in the first
rank of ichthyologists of all time." Jordan praised Eigenmann by saying
"one of the most eminent workers in the field of systematic zoology and
one of the ablest of natural history teachers, withal the most tireless of
explorers." Jordan
in the meantime left Indiana
and took over as first president of Stanford
University, California.
His leadership in establishing a fish center there is still strong today. When
he left Indiana
he took with him Charles Henry Gilbert (1859-1928). At
Stanford he gathered two important men, John Otterbein Snyder
(1867-1943) and Edwin Chapin Starks (1867-1932). For half a
century Standford
University was the main
center for training students in ichthyology. Charles Henry Gilbert was known
for his methodical handling of American fishes. His work was primarily on
salmon and to apply statistical methods to fishery research. This earned him
the title of "the father of modern fisheries biological research in America."
Seth John Meeks
(1859-1914) was another of Jordan's
students and like Eigenmann revised many early group and regional papers. He
largely focused his attention on freshwater fishes of Middle
America. Many more followed Jordan's lead and most were his students.
George Brown Goode (1851-1896) played an important role in pure and
applied ichthyology in the United
States. His ichthyology overlapped Jordan, but the
two did not publish together. However, they did cooperate effectively. Much of
his work was focused on fisheries biology, particularly that of certain
commercially important fishes. His research of deep-sea fishes was firmly
established since Jordan
had no interest in them. Tarleton H. Bean (1846-1916) was an
associate of Goode and helped lay out the rational inclusion of deep-sea fishes
in the Fishes of North and Middle America.
Later Bean's brother Barton A. Bean (1860-1947) followed him
as Curator of Fishes in the National
Museum. However his reign
seemed to be (quoting from Carl L. Hubbs) "less productive and less
illustratrious scientific life (during slightly more than the last decade of
the nineteenth century and the first two decades of the twentieth)."
Louis Agassiz while in San Francisco picked up another fellow by the
name of Samuel Garman (1843-1927) from what was then called
"the Wild West." Agassiz trained
Garman in ichthyology (both Garman and Jordan were fellow students under Agassiz at Penikese). In addition to publishing a
considerable number of minor papers, Garman monographed the "Discoboli"
(Cyclopteidae and Liparididae) in 1892, and the Cyprinodontes in 1895. Garmon's
work methodical in his attention to the anatomical detail. However, he was
never admired nor a member of the Jordan clique. Garmon was indeed a
recluse, locking himself into his ill-lit quarters at MCZ. The period 1875-1900
knowledge of fish fauna of the Pacific
Coast of the United States
flourished. Several incidental studies were conducted by Louis and Alexander
Agassiz, Gill, William O. Ayres, James Grahm Cooper (1830-1902),
William Gibbons (1812-1897), and a few other lessor known
figures. Much of the work reached a standstill during the Pacific Railroad
Survey of the 1850's. That is until Jordan and Gilbert carried out their survey
in 1880. The collected from British
Columbia to San
Diego, chiefly fish markets, which then, especially in
California,
contained a wide variety of inshore fishes.
This were quickly returned to their hotel room where they
prepared the fishes for shipment in preservative. Many quick descriptions were
done this way with prompt publication following their discovery. These were
published in short papers in the Proceedings of the United States National
Museum for 1880 and 1881.
Never mind, that expediency for correct descriptions was the norm and this
would later create problems for ichthyologists to follow. In one situation on a
trip to Matzatlán and on two trips to Panamá, in 1881 and 1882, Gilbert made
large fish collections that were destroyed by fire. This before a monograph on
The Fishes of the Pacific Coast of Tropical America could be written!
by Frank Magallanes, OPEFE
